Democracy and develpment under the pressure to survive
Annotation
The Republic of Botswana - the state of South Africa, which gained independence from the British Crown in 1966, is one of the examples of a successful path for the development of the country in extremely unfavorable conditions.
Botswana is a country with an unfavorable geographical position. It has no access to the sea, 70 percent of its territory consists of Kalahari Desert. The dry, arid climate greatly complicates any agricultural activities. The northern part of the country, where the main rivers are located, is prone to high levels of malaria, sleeping sickness, as well as a whole host of cattle diseases, thanks to a large population of tsetse flies. The main part of the population lives in the south of the country.
The history before the Bichuan colonial society of the early 20th century speaks of a communal society, low population density, and scarce livestock.
First census of 1904 - Population 0.6 h/km2
(Annual Report of the Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1903/1904)
Innovation # 1 - Democratization of social structure
Scarcity of pastures and low population density is the main reason for the need for a combination of subsistence farming and pastoralism. This necessity provided a base for local tribal communities - called “morafe”.
The communities are divided into several settlements around the local capitals, where the leader or king of the tribe called “kgosi” resides. The chief holds the land and livestock in trust for his people and decides how the community's resources are distributed. Labor as a resource is the biggest scarcity in the small Bechuan society and is handled with particular care. Each farm belonging to the village is obliged to cultivate its own piece of land.
Traditional social structure:
Leaders-managers - kgosi
Council of Elders
Patriarchal clan groups
Tribal communities - morafé
The Kgosi is obliged to consult with the councilors and community elders in order to redirect labor to the right projects or approve political decisions. The reputation of the leader is highly dependent on the loyalty of the entire community, he is expected to be generous to his subordinates. Village elders are the main executors of the orders of the leader. They govern tribal groups, the number of which depends on the size of the village. Each clan group has its own elder, who reports directly to the elder of the village. The clan group consists of families, the head of each family is considered to be the eldest male.
Such a hierarchical structure binds self-sufficient social units into a system of democratic governance, in which the opinions of each member of society should be taken into account. It develops patience, cooperation and a high level of responsibility by each subsequent unit.
Livestock grazing is not a very labor-intensive activity; accordingly, the management of such labor and the resources associated with it does not require complex authoritarian management and allows time for polemics and the observance of the interests of the inhabitants of the community.
Innovation #2 - Voluntary protectorate instead of resistance
Due to relative isolation, low population density, unfavorable climate, Botswana does not become a subject for colonization. The slave trade and colonial exploitation of the 17th and 18th centuries bypassed Botswana entirely.
The gold and diamond mines opened by the end of the 19th century in neighboring South Africa serve as a source of work for the Bichuans. The territories of South Africa and their resources are the territory of conflict between the European powers, and between the European powers and local population. According to historians of Botswana, the leaders of that time, having assessed the situation, decided that the colonization of their country, in view of the obvious military superiority of the Europeans, was only a matter of time. They themselves turn to the British with a request to establish colonial control over their country.
In 1885, England proclaimed the Protectorate of Bechuanaland. Formally, the territory of the protectorate provided free access through the territory of Botswana to the central regions of the continent. The British were interested in nothing more than that. Bichuans, on the other hand, get the opportunity to get hired in the Kimberley mines, and then in the Witwatersrand, they were not used as slave labor.
New opportunities for population of the protectorate:
Employment of citizens in neighboring countries;
Urbanization of the southern regions;
Establishment of the Colonial Development Fund.
Due to lack of the region development and minimal infrastructure, it took England 5 years to establish full control over Bechuanaland. The system of taxation functioned minimally, trade and transportation of scarce resources were concentrated in places where the population was most dense. Since 1930, the process of urbanization of the southern regions begins, but most of the country continues to live according to the rules of natural farming and Animal husbandry, in a communal system. Large financial investments are required for the development of the colony. The British budget began to allocate money and formed the Colonial Development Fund only in 1935.
Innovation #3 - Political passivity and external PR
By the end of the 1940s, the Tswana elite was actively using British aid to develop the meat industry. Seretse Khama and Ketumile Masire, two of the country's largest livestock breeders, are becoming leaders in economic development. At the same time, the policy of England towards the colonies is focused on granting them early independence.
Seretse Khama became a prominent figure for a political career. Not only is he a successful entrepreneur, but he is also the nephew of Chekedi Kham, the current chief of the ruling clan and the de facto king of Tswana. In 1946, Seretse Khama went to London to receive British education. He meets Ruth Williams, the daughter of a retired Indian company officer, with whom he had an affair. Two years later, they decide to enter into an official marriage, Seretse sends a letter to his uncle to notify him of the upcoming wedding.
Chekedi Khama, who by his status is the main authority of the clan, cannot accept this state of affairs, moreover, he was not consulted about it, he had to face the fact that marriage is happening. He puts pressure on the London Missionary Society to stop the marriage. The London Bishop refuses to perform the ceremony, but Sereste and Ruth find a way to register officially through the state registry office.
When the government of England was informed about it, a diplomatic scandal began. Chekedi Khama orders Seretse, the future heir to the kingdom of Tswana, to return from London for a trial. The meetings of the clan almost unanimously charge him with violating tribal traditions and disobeying the leader. Chekedi states that he will take all possible measures to prevent marriage and bars Ruth Williams from entering the country.
Seretse insists that he will not return without his wife, Chekedi Khama remains adamant. Chekedi begins to look for supporters for the expulsion of the heir, which creates unrest in the political and governmental circles. At the next meeting of the clan, a significant number of members suddenly withdraw their objections to the marriage of Seretse and Ruth, demanding guarantees for the safe return of Seretse to their homeland.
Tribal strife leaves Chekedi Khama at a loss. He is deprived of the support of the majority and goes into self-imposed exile. Seretse Khama must now take the place of leader, but he must be also recognized by the government of England. In October 1949, the Union of South Africa declared him and his wife undesirable immigrants. The apartheid system of South Africa cannot accept the fact of interracial marriage, much less at the level of the chief.
They are denied access to the official office of the protectorate in Mafeking on the border with the state of the Union of South Africa under threat of arrest.
“From the outset, the white governments of the Union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesian had expressed grave concerns about the marriage and the consequences of British recognition of Seretse as Chief. Indeed, the Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia warned the British High Commissioner, Sir Evelyn Baring, that the more extreme nationalists would not be willing to remain associated with a country which officially recognised an African Chief married to a white woman, 'and that they would make Seretse's recognition the occasion of an appeal to the country for the establishment of a Republic; and not only a Republic, but of a Republic outside the Commonwealth' . The Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa confirmed that he would not oppose such a move, whilst keeping a watchful eye on the situation in Bechuanaland. Under the provisions of the South Africa Act of 1909, the Union laid claim to the neighbouring tribal territories and, as the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations pointed out to the Cabinet in 1949, the 'demand for this transfer might become more insistent if we disregard the Union government's views'. He went on, 'indeed, we cannot exclude the possibility of an armed incursion into the Bechuanaland Protectorate from the Union if Serestse were to be recognised forthwith, while feeling on the subject is inflamed'..”
Rider, Clare., The "Unfortunate Marriage" of Seretse Khama - The Inner Temple Yearbook 2002/2003
The government of England is faced with the dilemma of multi-polar management of the colonies and does not want to take a tough stance. In view of the potential conflict of interest, England cannot support Seretse as heir to the throne and recognize him because of this "unfortunate marriage". The colonial government sends Seretse back to London, organizes a provisional government of the protectorate, attracting local leaders already serving in the government. He and his wife are banned from returning to Bechuanaland.
However, the story does not go by the wayside, the “Seretse problem” continues to be discussed in the English Parliament, it is regularly raised by Winston Churchill and Anthony Wedgwood Benn. At the initiative of the colonial government, Seretse and Chekedi signed an agreement on renunciation of the throne, in 1956 Seretse returned to his homeland with his wife and children. Seretse Khama and his wife, known among the population of Bechuanaland as Lady Kay, have been developing the livestock business for the next 10 years, leading a political campaign, traveling around the country. Seretse's confrontation with his uncle's authoritarian government and England's colonial government arouses widespread support among the population for him.
In the late 50s, Britain firmly embarked on the path of decolonization, and is actively looking for ways to grant independence to the colonies. Constitutional reforms are being introduced to empower the Bechuanaland government, but the leadership of the appointed interim government is not popular in the villages and is slow to take the initiative. Against this backdrop, Seretse Khama is the only real “European friendly” candidate. In 1962, he became the head of the Bechuanaland Democratic Party, and in 1965 he won the election as prime minister, and then in 1966 became the first president of the independent state of Botswana. Unlike the neighboring states of South Africa, South-West Africa (Namibia), Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), in Botswana the transfer of power takes place peacefully.
Innovation #4 - Keeping Traditional Relationships in Ownership
For the first five years, Botswana's budget is fully supported by England. The country's elites, monopolists in the livestock market, uphold colonial laws that benefit them from the export of livestock and meat.
In 1968, laws came into force on both water and tribal lands, which grant the rights of their distribution to state councils, instead of clan councils. In 1970, 12 such councils were created, which consist of local authorities. The distribution system and its rules are in line with the traditional norms of first requiring investment in infrastructure, which becomes the basis for obtaining land ownership.
Territory ownership rules:
The natural state of the land that it is in a public ownership;
An individual or group may erect structures such as dwellings and wells that are private property;
Maintenance of the healthy infrastructure gives the right to own the land;
Also, in 1970, the government of Botswana announced the discovery of one of the largest diamond deposits in the world in the east-central part of the country. The mining operations began in 1971. The elites of Botswana knew about the deposit much earlier, but were in no hurry to announce it until the country gained independence from Britain. The development of these mines is becoming the main source of income for the country's budget.
As a resource, diamonds have many advantages over other minerals, and the government of Botswana has implemented successful strategies for its development.
In Liberia and Sierra Leone, diamonds are available close to the surface and can be mined by primitive methods, which provokes armed conflicts between factions over the exploitation of this resource. Botswana’s diamond deposits are located deep in the ground, and their extraction must be carried out at the level of the state or a large company.
The main strategy is based on the traditional principle of land allocation - investment precedes ownership. A joint venture between the state of Botswana and De Beers, which invests in the development of diamond mines, was organized. Ownership and income of the parties are distributed 50 to 50.
Diamonds as a resource:
High price in the market;
Easy to store, store and transport;
Consumed in the global market, excluding local competition;
Allow regulating supply and demand simply by reducing exports;
Botswana Advantages:
Diamonds are deep in the ground, which requires significant investment;
A large investor is attracted on mutually beneficial terms;
A surge in income does not translate into increased spending;
Fiscal policy aims to eliminate external debt;
Innovation # 5 - Rolling development of social sectors and subsidies
The traditional hierarchical structure of self-sufficient units and the system of councils creates an atmosphere of transparency, increasing the degree of accountability of the government to the population. Diamond proceeds are invested in social programs of Botswana.
Since the introduction of the new fiscal policy, Botswana has established 10 main and 30 subsidiary social programs. In 1973, the Self-Help Housing Agency for the Housing of the Poorest and the General Housing Strategy were revised in 1990 and 2000 to adopt world quality standards. In 1982, the construction of the Morupule Thermal Power Plant began, now this station provides 80 percent of the country's energy.
The proportion of citizens living at or below the poverty line has dropped from 50 percent in 1966 to 16 percent in 2016.
In 1977, a law was passed requiring employers to obtain private workers' compensation insurance, and it provides for temporary disability benefits equal to two-thirds of regular wages.
The first universal pension scheme was launched in Botswana in 1996. It included:
Program for the disadvantaged;
Orphan Care Program;
Home care at the place of residence;
Primary School Nutrition Programs;
Middle School Nutrition Programs
Feeding vulnerable groups;
Remote Area Development Program;
Old Age Pension Program;
Public works - Ipelegeng;
Help for WWII veterans.
Within ten years of independence, Botswana established a department of education, increased the number of primary and secondary schools, and the education system between 1985 and 91 received funding 22 percent above the planned budget. The country is undergoing a healthcare reform, 26 hospitals have been opened, 16 of which are in remote areas of the country.
The number of educational institutions increased by:
Primary schools 33 percent;
Secondary schools by 60 percent;
The number of qualified teachers increased by 134 percent in the same period. In 1982, the Botswana branch of the University of Swaziland became the State University of Botswana.
The problem of HIV-infected people is acute in the country, which is solved at the state level:
treatment and medicines are paid for each citizen from the state budget. The government of Botswana now spends more on the health care of each citizen than any other country in Africa.
Innovation # 6 - Political stability by human capital development
Since the political structure includes a spectrum of feedback from the communities, it levels out the reasons for the opposition to state power. The government elite includes representatives of the former royal family, and it is claimed that democratic elections are being held in the country. Seretse Khama's son, Ian Khama, serves as President of Botswana from 2008 to 2018, and is succeeded by the son of Minister of Natural Resources Moskvetsi Masisi. However, large projects such as the construction of a thermal power plant show evidence of embezzlement of funds and manipulation of contracts.
Despite this, the level of corruption in Botswana is considered the lowest on the African continent, and the government enjoys the support of the majority of the population. A generation of so-called “diamond children” - young professionals who have received education in Botswana - are employed in the government apparatus.
Bogolo Kenevendo - born in 1987, former Minister of Investment, Trade and Industry of Botswana. One of the authors of laws developing the strategy of the digital economy of the region.
https://twitter.com/BogoloKenewendo/media
Botswana is developing an eco-tourism industry that accounts for 13 percent of the country's annual gross product and employs about 8 percent of the population, mostly in rural areas.
The country is also developing renewable technology projects. Botswana's geographic location gives it a global advantage in terms of solar and wind energy potential (over 3,200 hours of sunshine per year).
www.irena.org
Conclusions
In its development, Botswana goes through three main stages: pre-colonial, post-colonial and modern. Social development is slow, which in this case this is an advantage rather than a disadvantage. The lack of infrastructure, economy and active political life at the pre-colonial stage allow Botswana to stay away from the consequences of colonization and independently seek the patronage of one of the most powerful empires. Not being a source of both natural and human resources, the country goes through a stage of sluggish colonization, which gives it access to the resources and technologies of England.
The stability of power creates the image of a reliable partner, which helps the government to attract investment from multinational companies to develop natural resources. Slow reforms do not allow the development of excess profits from mining, which stabilizes the country's budget surplus. From year to year, the budget share of projects developing infrastructure and internal diversification is increasing.
The process of urbanization is generally also slow, except for the capital. Gabarone is one of the fastest growing metropolitan areas in the world. The annual population growth of urbanized areas shows an annual increase.
An important aspect of Botswana's social development is the balance between the traditional structure of relations and the slow pace of adaptation to the colonial regime. The political vacuum becomes a condition for the coming to power of the national hero Seretse Kham, who, just as slowly and under the leadership of the British, establishes the independence of Botswana. The new government's post-colonial doctrine is to slowly raise the country's standard of living through a package of standard social reforms. The development of diamond mines and the involvement of TNCs is the main strategy for economic development.
Botswana
Disadvantages:
Geographical position;
Minimum infrastructure;
Low level of human capital;
Lagging urbanization;
Advantages:
Absence of severe consequences of colonization;
The presence of minerals;
Political and economic stability;
The gradual nature of the reforms;
The example of Botswana shows that it is possible to successfully apply known development algorithms to develop a country if they are implemented without acceleration, while balance between tradition and innovation is maintained.
Sources:
After Apartheid Reinventing South Africa? University of Virginia Press 2011 Edited by Ian Shapiro and Kahreen Tebeau;
Ellen Hillbom • Jutta Bolt Botswana – A Modern Economic History An African Diamond in the Rough 2018;
Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty Daron Acemoglu, James A. Robinson Profile Books 2012
Colour Bar: The Triumph of Seretse Khama and His Nation Williams, Susan Penguin Books Ltd 2007
Botswana: A Development-Oriented Gate Keeping State
